Anti-racism Series | Over and Under Representation in Race-Based Data
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(11 minutes read. The bolded terms in the article indicate the terms that are included in the Glossary at the bottom of the page)
Introduction
Race-based data is used to examine how each Racialized group experiences society and identify where each group may be overrepresented or underrepresented. If Racialized people are not experiencing society in ways that are equal to their representation in society, this can point to areas of racism and racial discrimination. This data can then be used to support changes to address systemic racism and work towards ensuring that each group is equally experiencing success and safety in our society. (To learn more about race-based data, please see our previous blog post- here).
Analyzing Data Using Proportions
Race-based Data can help to identify patterns of behaviour that point to systemic racism by analyzing the data through determining proportions. Statistics Canada (2021) shares that “a proportion is a part, share, or number considered in comparative relation to a whole” (timestamp: 12:54) This means that a proportion helps us to compare a part of a group to the whole group. In race-based data, proportion is used to compare the number of people in a specific Racialized group, who have a specific experience, with the total number of people in that Racialized group in the society (community, city, country). As our population is constantly changing, race-based data identifies proportions at a specific point in time.
In race-based data, proportion is used to determine if Racialized groups are over-represented or under-represented in different areas. This use of proportion is based on the imagined idea that if we lived in a society where everything was equal and there was no history of colonialism, racism, slavery, and oppression, then everyone should be represented in every social experience exactly as much as their representation in the society as a whole. However, we know that this is an imagined society, and even if there were no forms of oppression, differences in our experiences would arise. The goal of race-based data is to compare lived experiences to an imagined ideal of equality to help identify systemic barriers.
Determining Proportionality
For example, in 2021, 41,350 people in Calgary identified as Indigenous people. The total population of Calgary, in 2021, was 1,306,780 people (City of Calgary, 2025). We can figure out the proportion by dividing the number of Indigenous people by the number of people in the total population: 41,350/ 1,306,780 = 0.032. We can then figure out the percentage of Indigenous people living in Calgary by multiplying 0.032 by 100 (Statistics Canada, 2021): .0316 X 100 = 3.2%.
This data can look like this:
This means that 3.2% of people living in Calgary in 2021 identified as Indigenous people. 3.2% seems like a small percentage but we need to remember that the percentage refers to 41,350 individual people. Based on the idea of proportionality in race-based data, these numbers can then be used to determine if Indigenous people in Calgary are over-represented or under-represented in different social experiences. If everything was equal then Indigenous people should make up 3.2% of CEOs, professors, doctors, scholarship winners, police sergeants, Olympic athletes, mayors etc. This also means that only 3.2% of people who receive support at the ER, access mental health resources, experience being unhoused etc. should be identified as Indigenous peoples.
Connections Between Proportionality and Systemic Racism
Race-based data can help us look for areas where these numbers are over (more) or under (less) than the expected equal amount and identify where people are experiencing discrimination by being overrepresented or underrepresented. When we look at the data for the racial identity of Calgary Mayors, we can see that there is underrepresentation for Black, Indigenous and diverse Racialized people. In the ideal imagined world of race-based data, at least 3.2% of Calgary Mayors would have identified as Indigenous people. However, 0% of Calgary Mayors have identified as Indigenous people. This shows underrepresentation.
Both overrepresentation and underrepresentation can point to systemic racism and barriers to participating fully in society. When we notice that some groups are negatively overrepresented or negatively underrepresented, this is just the start of the story and should peak our curiosity. These statistics invite us to ask more questions about what is causing this disproportionality so we can identify systemic racism and barriers. Race-based data helps us to be curious and ask questions about why overrepresentation and underrepresentation occur.
Over and Under Representation in the Education System
In the education system, Racialized students frequently encounter systemic barriers, such as underfunded schools, biased disciplinary practices, and limited access to advanced learning opportunities (Maynard, 2022). These barriers impact student engagement and success in school. These patterns can be seen through the areas where Racialized people are negatively overrepresented and negatively underrepresented in the education system.
Over-representation in Dropout Rates
The race-based data on high school graduation shows that visible minority students are overrepresented in the area of dropping out of school (Usher, 2023). According to Statistics Canada, 63% of First Nations youth have completed high school, compared to 91% of non-Indigenous youth (Layton, 2023). In Alberta, research shows that “45% of Indigenous Students don’t graduate from high school” (Tait, 2024, pg. 46). Black students in Ontario are also reported to face significantly worse educational outcomes, with a dropout rate of 23% for Black students, nearly double the 12% dropout rate for White students (Gupta et al., 2021).
Under-representation in Teaching Faculty
Racialized people are also underrepresented in teaching faculty. Fowler (2020) notes that “70% of teachers in Alberta are White and female” (para. 16). The Alberta Teacher’s Association used race-based data to notice that “although 29.5 percent of all Albertans are identified as members of a Racialized community, only 9 percent of teachers are identified [as Racialized]” (Berg, 2023, para. 3). This means that most Racialized students do not have the opportunity to learn from teachers who share their racial identity and/or culture.
We can ask: Why are many Indigenous, Black, and diverse Racialized students not completing high school? What factors impact their success in school? If there were more racial representation in teaching staff would that impact Racialized student success?
Over and Under Representation in Health Care
Racialized people also experience disproportionate hardship and different treatment while accessing the healthcare system. The quality of care they receive, and their health outcomes are also affected by implicit bias in medical treatment, language barriers, and economic inequities contribute to poorer health outcomes and higher rates of chronic illnesses (Rabbit, 2024).
Underrepresentation in HealthCare Providers
Underrepresentation means that the number of individuals from a particular group seen in a specific position is significantly lower compared to their proportion in the general population. For example, “First Nations, Inuit and Métis people make up roughly five per cent of the population of Canada, but…only make up a small fraction of one percent of all the physicians in Canada.” (Aziz and Ward, 2023, para.6) This can occur due to systemic racism that causes barriers that limit the full participation of racial identity groups in society.
We can ask: Why aren’t there more Indigenous doctors? Are Indigenous people applying to medical school? Are Indigenous people being accepted to medical school? Are Indigenous people applying to be doctors? If not, why?
Underrepresentation as Under-reporting
Sometimes we see underrepresentation as a result of under-reporting in the data collection process. In the case of under-reporting we see that the numbers reported are less than what is actually occurring. This means that the data collected does not provide a clear picture of the unique outcomes for these groups. When data is missing or not shown properly, it can give us the wrong idea of what’s really happening. This can lead to important problems in our communities being ignored. For example, in May 2020, Indigenous Services Canada reported there were 175 COVID-19 cases in Indigenous reserve communities across the country, but data from those communities showed there were actually 456 cases that month (Skye, 2020). This shows that Indigenous communities were not properly counted, and this led to being overlooked by healthcare systems in Canada. If we don’t know how many people are sick, how can the system make sure that people get the help they need to recover?
Overrepresentation in Statistics Canada also noted, “Unmet health care needs… were reported by 32% of First Nations people living off reserve, 30% of Métis, and 29% of Inuit” (Statistics Canada, 2024, para. 7). Not having accurate data can also make problems worse for already struggling communities, and it can change how we understand the real challenges faced by Racialized communities. The race-based data in health care show that Indigenous Peoples are underrepresented in health care professional positions, under-reported in health care needs, and overrepresented as peoples who are not having their health needs met.
We can ask: Why were the Indigenous cases of COVID not documented? Did people try to document it? Do people not trust the reporting process? What is stopping the data from being correct? Why are Indigenous people’s healthcare needs not being met? If there were more Indigenous doctors, would more Indigenous people have their healthcare needs met?
Conclusion
Race-based data is a tool that can help us to see patterns of behaviour that can indicate systemic racism and racial . By identifying racial groups that are disproportionately impacted- either negatively overrepresented or negatively underrepresented, the data can help us to identify disparities and barriers to engaging in society.
As mentioned in our previous blog, it is important to consider this data using critical literacy skills and a questioning mind. The data has limitations based on how people’s races are being defined, how the reporting is completed, and how the data is analyzed. Disparities in people’s engagement in society can also be caused by other factors such as socio-economic status, gender oppression, sexual identity oppression, and language exclusion, to name a few. These factors can all overlap with racism and should be looked at through an intersectional framework. Race-based data is helpful in noticing how racism is impacting the lived experiences of Racialized people in society. Race-based data can prompt us to ask thoughtful questions about systemic racism and help to support transformational systems-change.
References
Aziz, S. & Ward, K. (2023). Indigenous representation in health care improving – but ‘enormous gaps’ remain. Global News. https://globalnews.ca/news/9994493/indigenous-health-care-representation-truth-and-reconciliation/#:~:text=Besides%20better%20representation%2C%20Lafontaine%20said,end%20state%2C%E2%80%9D%20he%20said.&text=This%20is%20a%20good%20start,us%20and%20for%20Indigenous%20communities.%E2%80%9D
Berg, A. (2023). ATA group works to address issues of race: Executive report. The Alberta Teacher’s Association. https://teachers.ab.ca/news/ata-group-works-address-issues-race#:~:text=So%20although%2029.5%20per%20cent,the%20status%20of%20Racialized%20teachers.
Calgary Economic Development, City of Calgary, & MNP. (2023). Indigenous economic contribution study. Chromeextension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/, https://www.calgaryeconomicdevelopment.com/assets/Reports/Indigenous/CED2023_Indigenous-Economic-Contribution-Study.pdf
City of Calgary. (2025). Data about Calgary’s population. City of Calgary. https://www.calgary.ca/research/population-profile.html
Fowler, T. (2020). Racism contributes to poor attendance of Indigenous students in Alberta schools: New study. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/racism-contributes-to-poor-attendance-of-indigenous-students-in-alberta-schools-new-study-141922
DasGupta,N., Shandal,V., Daniel Shadd, and Andrew Segal, in conjunction with Civic Action. The Pervasive Reality of Anti-Black Racism in Canada – The current state, and what to do about it 2021. https://civicaction.ca/app/uploads/2021/03/realities-of-anti-black-racism-in-canada-2020-12-12-updated.pdf
Layton, J. (2023) First Nations youth: Experiences and outcomes in secondary and postsecondary learning. Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/81-599-x/81-599-x2023001-eng.htm
Maynard, R. (2017). Canadian Education Is Steeped in Anti-Black Racism. The Walrus. https://thewalrus.ca/canadian-education-is-steeped-in-anti-black-racism
Rabbit, C. (2024). Dying At the Hands of Racism: The Healthcare Crisis for Indigenous Peoples in Alberta. Alberta Native News. https://www.albertanativenews.com/dying-at-the-hands-of-racism-the-healthcare-crisis-for-indigenous-peoples-in-alberta/
Skye, C. (2020, May 12). Colonialism of the curve: Indigenous communities & bad Covid data. Yellowhead Institute. https://yellowheadinstitute.org/2020/05/12/colonialism-of-the-curve-indigenous-communities-and-bad-covid-data/
Statistics Canada. (2021). Statistics 101: Proportions, ratios, and rates. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GoeKO0X9xAY&t=342s
Statistics Canada. (2024). Health care access and experiences among Indigenous people, 2024. The Daily. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/241104/dq241104a-eng.htm
Tait, L. (2024). I know you are, and I am sorry: An inquiry into anger and hope. In T. Duchscher & K. Lenters (Eds.). Decolonizing literacies: Disrputing, reclaiming, and remembering relationship in literacy education (pp. 45-56) Routledge.
Usher, A. (2023) Visible Minority Students in Canadian Post-Secondary Education https://higheredstrategy.com/visible-minority-students-in-canadian-post-secondary-education/
Glossary of Terms
(The following terms were developed in reference to the Calgary Anti-Racism Education (CARED) Glossary: https://www.aclrc.com/glossary) and the Canada Race Relations Foundation Glossary of Terms ( https://crrf-fcrr.ca/glossary-of-terms/)
Indigenous Identity: refers to individuals who identify as First Nations, Métis or Inuit as well as members of First Nations bands and/ or Registered or Treaty Indians. (Calgary Economic Development; City of Calgary & MNP, 2023)
Intersectional Framework: A way of looking at lived experience data that understands that the multiple parts of our identities overlap and impact the way that we experience the world and discrimination based on hierarchies. For example, people can be treated with discrimination based on the individual identity elements of race, gender, sexual orientation, and age. However, these elements all overlap in some people creating a complex experience of discrimination. For example, a Black man will have a different experience of discrimination than a Black, trans, lesbian young woman.
Proportionality: a mathematical concept that compares parts of groups with the whole group.
- Proportion: “a proportion is a part, share, or number considered in comparative relation to a whole” (Statistics Canada, 2021, timestamp: 12:54)
- Disproportionate representation: when one racial group is represented in an area of society more or less than their representation in the society as a whole.
Race: “Race” is a socially constructed grouping based on skin colour, hair colour and texture, and facial features. Socially constructed means that racial groups were determined by people and while our features are biological, the groupings are not. The definition of racial groups (ie. who is White or Black) has changed over time based on the dominant group’s need for power. The definition of racial groups is also different based on location. For example, someone who is seen as Black in Canada may not be seen as Black in Nigeria. Racial groups were developed to maintain power and keep people separated. They have evolved to connect with culture and these racial groups have real-life impacts on our daily lives.
Race-based Data: Race-based data gathers information about people’s racial identity or “race”. This data can be used to identify patterns of behaviour that lead to systemic racism. Race-based data can be aggregated or disaggregated.
Racial Discrimination: Based on a false hierarchy that gives more value to some racial groups than others, racial discrimination is the denial of equal treatment and opportunities to individuals or groups based on race. Racial discrimination creates barriers for racialized people to experience the human needs of safety, dignity, and belonging as well as opportunities needed to live a fulfilling life.
Racialized: Racialization is the complex process through which groups come to be designated as being of a particular “race” and on that basis, they are subjected to differential and/or unequal treatment (CARED Glossary). The term “Racialized” is used to identify people who are not White because it draws attention to the fact that racial groupings were created and assigned to non-white people for the dominant group to maintain power.
Representation (racial): How many people from each racial group are present in different areas of society. For example, how many Black people are present in leadership roles.
- Overrepresented: there is more of one group represented than compared to the group’s representation in the whole. For example, there is a bigger percentage of Caucasian (white) men that have been Mayor of Calgary than compared to the percentage of Caucasian(white) men in Calgary.
- Underrepresented: There is less of one group represented than compared to the group’s representation in the whole. For example, there is a smaller percentage of Racialized people who have been Mayor of Calgary than compared to the percentage of Racialized people in Calgary.
Systemic racism: Patterns of behaviour, policies or practices that are part of the social or administrative structures of an organization or institution, and which create or perpetuate inequitable opportunities and outcomes for people based on race. Prejudicial beliefs accompanied by power are used to discriminate and create barriers to participation in society and life.
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